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fill=\"currentColor\" d=\"M14.234 10.162L22.977 0h-2.072l-7.591 8.824L7.251 0H.258l9.168 13.343L.258 24H2.33l8.016-9.318L16.749 24h6.993zm-2.837 3.299l-.929-1.329L3.076 1.56h3.182l5.965 8.532l.929 1.329l7.754 11.09h-3.182z\"\u002F>",{"id":47,"title":48,"author":49,"body":50,"cefrLevel":857,"date":49,"description":858,"exercises":859,"extension":933,"faqs":934,"gcseTier":49,"intro":49,"language":947,"lastUpdated":49,"meta":948,"navigation":949,"path":950,"seo":951,"stem":952,"verbSlugs":49,"__hash__":953},"pages\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fpast-modals.md","Past modals in English: should have, could have, must have and might have",null,{"type":51,"value":52,"toc":845},"minimark",[53,70,84,89,96,182,185,237,251,255,261,281,292,306,321,325,328,404,427,440,444,453,473,489,499,502,516,520,523,567,580,584,697,701,704,795,799,802,836],[54,55,56,57,61,62,65,66,69],"p",{},"English talks about the past it did not get by bolting ",[58,59,60],"em",{},"have"," plus a past\nparticiple onto a modal verb. ",[58,63,64],{},"I should have called. She must have left. It\ncould have been worse."," One shape, three quite different jobs: regret,\ndeduction, and the road you did not take. The shape never varies, which makes\nthis an unusually cheap topic to learn. What costs learners marks is choosing\nthe wrong modal, and writing ",[58,67,68],{},"should of",".",[54,71,72,73,78,79,83],{},"This page follows on from ",[74,75,77],"a",{"href":76},"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fmodal-verbs","modal verbs"," and from\n",[74,80,82],{"href":81},"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fmodals-of-deduction","modals of deduction",", which does the same\nguessing work in the present.",[85,86,88],"h2",{"id":87},"the-shape","The shape",[54,90,91,95],{},[92,93,94],"strong",{},"modal + have + past participle."," That is all of it.",[97,98,99,118],"table",{},[100,101,102],"thead",{},[103,104,105,109,112,115],"tr",{},[106,107,108],"th",{},"Modal",[106,110,111],{},"+ have",[106,113,114],{},"+ past participle",[106,116,117],{},"Result",[119,120,121,137,152,167],"tbody",{},[103,122,123,127,129,132],{},[124,125,126],"td",{},"should",[124,128,60],{},[124,130,131],{},"gone",[124,133,134],{},[58,135,136],{},"I should have gone.",[103,138,139,142,144,147],{},[124,140,141],{},"must",[124,143,60],{},[124,145,146],{},"left",[124,148,149],{},[58,150,151],{},"She must have left.",[103,153,154,157,159,162],{},[124,155,156],{},"could",[124,158,60],{},[124,160,161],{},"been",[124,163,164],{},[58,165,166],{},"It could have been.",[103,168,169,172,174,177],{},[124,170,171],{},"might",[124,173,60],{},[124,175,176],{},"known",[124,178,179],{},[58,180,181],{},"He might have known.",[54,183,184],{},"Three rules hold throughout, and they are the rules modals always follow:",[186,187,188,209,224],"ul",{},[189,190,191,193,194,197,198,201,202,205,206,69],"li",{},[58,192,60],{}," never changes. Not ",[58,195,196],{},"has",", not ",[58,199,200],{},"had",". ",[58,203,204],{},"She must have seen it",", never\n",[58,207,208],{},"she must has seen it",[189,210,211,212,214,215,218,219,223],{},"The verb after ",[58,213,60],{}," is the past participle, so you need your irregular\nforms. ",[58,216,217],{},"Gone, seen, taken, known, left, caught."," The\n",[74,220,222],{"href":221},"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Firregular-verbs","irregular verbs"," page has the list.",[189,225,226,227,230,231,233,234,69],{},"Negatives put ",[58,228,229],{},"not"," on the modal, not on ",[58,232,60],{},": ",[58,235,236],{},"shouldn't have, can't have,\nmight not have",[54,238,239,240,243,244,243,247,250],{},"In speech the whole thing collapses to ",[58,241,242],{},"should've",", ",[58,245,246],{},"must've",[58,248,249],{},"could've",". Say\nit that way by all means. Write it out.",[85,252,254],{"id":253},"should-have-regret-and-criticism","should have: regret and criticism",[54,256,257,260],{},[58,258,259],{},"Should have done"," means the right thing was available and you did not do it.\nTurned on yourself it is regret; turned on someone else it is criticism, and\noften a fairly pointed one.",[186,262,263,269,275],{},[189,264,265,268],{},[58,266,267],{},"I should have booked earlier."," (Regret. Now there are no seats.)",[189,270,271,274],{},[58,272,273],{},"You should have told me."," (Criticism. You did not.)",[189,276,277,280],{},[58,278,279],{},"They shouldn't have sold the house."," (It was a mistake.)",[54,282,283,284,287,288,291],{},"The negative works the same way in reverse. ",[58,285,286],{},"Shouldn't have done"," means you did\nit and you were wrong to. ",[58,289,290],{},"I shouldn't have eaten so much"," is the classic.",[54,293,294,297,298,301,302,305],{},[58,295,296],{},"Ought to have"," means exactly the same thing and sounds a shade more formal:\n",[58,299,300],{},"you ought to have said something",". Nobody will misunderstand you, but ",[58,303,304],{},"should\nhave"," is what people actually say.",[54,307,308,309,312,313,316,317,69],{},"One warning about tone. Because ",[58,310,311],{},"should have"," carries blame, it is not a\nneutral way to describe the past. ",[58,314,315],{},"You should have locked the door"," is not a\nreport; it is a complaint. If you only want to say what happened, use the\n",[74,318,320],{"href":319},"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fpast-simple","past simple",[85,322,324],{"id":323},"must-have-and-cant-have-deduction-about-the-past","must have and can't have: deduction about the past",[54,326,327],{},"This is the past version of the certainty scale. You are working out what\nhappened from what you can see now.",[97,329,330,343],{},[100,331,332],{},[103,333,334,337,340],{},[106,335,336],{},"Meaning",[106,338,339],{},"Form",[106,341,342],{},"Example",[119,344,345,360,375,389],{},[103,346,347,350,355],{},[124,348,349],{},"Sure it happened",[124,351,352],{},[58,353,354],{},"must have",[124,356,357],{},[58,358,359],{},"The ground is cold, so it must have rained.",[103,361,362,365,370],{},[124,363,364],{},"Possible",[124,366,367],{},[58,368,369],{},"might have",[124,371,372],{},[58,373,374],{},"She might have missed the bus.",[103,376,377,379,384],{},[124,378,364],{},[124,380,381],{},[58,382,383],{},"could have",[124,385,386],{},[58,387,388],{},"He could have gone out the back way.",[103,390,391,394,399],{},[124,392,393],{},"Sure it did not happen",[124,395,396],{},[58,397,398],{},"can't have",[124,400,401],{},[58,402,403],{},"He can't have seen us, he was facing the wall.",[54,405,406,407,409,410,197,413,201,416,419,420,423,424,69],{},"The negative trap is the same one as in the present, and it is worth repeating\nbecause learners keep falling into it. The opposite of ",[58,408,354],{}," is ",[92,411,412],{},"can't\nhave",[58,414,415],{},"mustn't have",[58,417,418],{},"Mustn't"," is about permission, and permission has\nno past deduction form at all. ",[58,421,422],{},"He mustn't have known"," is wrong; write ",[58,425,426],{},"he\ncan't have known",[54,428,429,432,433,435,436,439],{},[58,430,431],{},"Couldn't have"," is an acceptable alternative to ",[58,434,398],{}," here: ",[58,437,438],{},"she\ncouldn't have finished already",". Both say you are sure it did not happen.",[85,441,443],{"id":442},"could-have-and-might-have-the-option-you-did-not-take","could have and might have: the option you did not take",[54,445,446,447,449,450,452],{},"Alongside deduction, ",[58,448,383],{}," does a second job that ",[58,451,354],{}," cannot: it\ndescribes something that was possible in the past and did not happen.",[186,454,455,461,467],{},[189,456,457,460],{},[58,458,459],{},"You could have asked me."," (You did not.)",[189,462,463,466],{},[58,464,465],{},"We could have taken the train."," (We drove instead.)",[189,468,469,472],{},[58,470,471],{},"She could have been a doctor."," (She became something else.)",[54,474,475,476,479,480,483,484,488],{},"This is close to the third conditional, and often the ",[58,477,478],{},"if"," half is simply left\nout: ",[58,481,482],{},"(if you had wanted) you could have come with us",". The\n",[74,485,487],{"href":486},"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fconditional-sentences","conditional sentences"," page sets out\nthe full pattern.",[54,490,491,494,495,498],{},[58,492,493],{},"Might have"," shades into the same territory, usually with a note of reproach:\n",[58,496,497],{},"you might have warned me"," means you should have and you did not. Context does\nall the work here; the form is identical to the deduction one.",[54,500,501],{},"Two set phrases are worth learning whole, because they come up constantly:",[186,503,504,510],{},[189,505,506,509],{},[58,507,508],{},"It could have been worse."," (Said after something bad but survivable.)",[189,511,512,515],{},[58,513,514],{},"You could have been killed."," (Said to someone who has just done something\nstupid on a bicycle.)",[85,517,519],{"id":518},"neednt-have-done-and-didnt-need-to-do","needn't have done and didn't need to do",[54,521,522],{},"These two look interchangeable and are not, in a way that matters.",[97,524,525,535],{},[100,526,527],{},[103,528,529,531,533],{},[106,530,339],{},[106,532,336],{},[106,534,342],{},[119,536,537,552],{},[103,538,539,544,547],{},[124,540,541],{},[58,542,543],{},"needn't have done",[124,545,546],{},"you did it, and it was not necessary",[124,548,549],{},[58,550,551],{},"I needn't have cooked. They had already eaten.",[103,553,554,559,562],{},[124,555,556],{},[58,557,558],{},"didn't need to do",[124,560,561],{},"it was not necessary, so usually you did not",[124,563,564],{},[58,565,566],{},"I didn't need to cook, so I read a book instead.",[54,568,569,572,573,576,577,69],{},[58,570,571],{},"Needn't have"," is about wasted effort. ",[58,574,575],{},"Didn't need to"," is about an obligation\nthat was never there. If the action happened, you want ",[58,578,579],{},"needn't have",[85,581,583],{"id":582},"summary-table","Summary table",[97,585,586,597],{},[100,587,588],{},[103,589,590,592,595],{},[106,591,339],{},[106,593,594],{},"Job",[106,596,342],{},[119,598,599,613,628,641,655,669,683],{},[103,600,601,605,608],{},[124,602,603],{},[58,604,311],{},[124,606,607],{},"regret, criticism",[124,609,610],{},[58,611,612],{},"You should have called.",[103,614,615,620,623],{},[124,616,617],{},[58,618,619],{},"shouldn't have",[124,621,622],{},"it was a mistake to do it",[124,624,625],{},[58,626,627],{},"I shouldn't have said that.",[103,629,630,634,637],{},[124,631,632],{},[58,633,354],{},[124,635,636],{},"sure it happened",[124,638,639],{},[58,640,151],{},[103,642,643,647,650],{},[124,644,645],{},[58,646,398],{},[124,648,649],{},"sure it did not happen",[124,651,652],{},[58,653,654],{},"He can't have known.",[103,656,657,661,664],{},[124,658,659],{},[58,660,369],{},[124,662,663],{},"possible, or a mild reproach",[124,665,666],{},[58,667,668],{},"They might have missed it.",[103,670,671,675,678],{},[124,672,673],{},[58,674,383],{},[124,676,677],{},"possible, or an option not taken",[124,679,680],{},[58,681,682],{},"We could have walked.",[103,684,685,689,692],{},[124,686,687],{},[58,688,579],{},[124,690,691],{},"you did it and it was unnecessary",[124,693,694],{},[58,695,696],{},"You needn't have paid.",[85,698,700],{"id":699},"common-mistakes","Common mistakes",[54,702,703],{},"Ranked by how often they appear in real learner writing.",[705,706,707,729,745,759,777],"ol",{},[189,708,709,722,723,725,726,728],{},[92,710,711,243,713,243,716,243,719,69],{},[58,712,68],{},[58,714,715],{},"could of",[58,717,718],{},"would of",[58,720,721],{},"must of"," All wrong, all the time.\nThe word is ",[58,724,60],{},". This one is not a grammar error so much as a spelling\nerror caused by the contraction ",[58,727,242],{},", but examiners mark it either\nway.",[189,730,731,736,737,740,741,744],{},[92,732,733,735],{},[58,734,415],{}," for the negative deduction."," ",[58,738,739],{},"He mustn't have heard me","\nshould be ",[58,742,743],{},"he can't have heard me",". Same trap as the present tense, one page\nlater.",[189,746,747,736,752,736,755,758],{},[92,748,749,750,69],{},"Changing ",[58,751,60],{},[58,753,754],{},"She must has gone, he should had told me.",[58,756,757],{},"Have"," is a\nbare infinitive after a modal, so it never inflects.",[189,760,761,736,764,767,768,770,771,243,773,776],{},[92,762,763],{},"Past simple instead of the participle.",[58,765,766],{},"I should have went, she must have\ntook it."," After ",[58,769,60],{}," you need the third form: ",[58,772,131],{},[58,774,775],{},"taken",". If your\nirregular verbs are shaky, this error will follow you everywhere.",[189,778,779,736,784,787,788,791,792,69],{},[92,780,781,783],{},[58,782,383],{}," for a real past ability.",[58,785,786],{},"I could have passed the exam"," does\nnot mean you passed it; it means you did not. If you did, say ",[58,789,790],{},"I was able to\npass"," or simply ",[58,793,794],{},"I passed",[85,796,798],{"id":797},"practice","Practice",[54,800,801],{},"Choose the best form. Answers are below.",[705,803,804,812,818,824,830],{},[189,805,806,807,811],{},"The ground is cold, so it ",[808,809,810],"code",{},"___"," (must have \u002F can't have) rained in the night.",[189,813,814,815,817],{},"You ",[808,816,810],{}," (should have \u002F shouldn't have) told me you were not well.",[189,819,820,821,823],{},"He ",[808,822,810],{}," (mustn't have \u002F can't have) seen the note, it was under the table.",[189,825,826,827,829],{},"I ",[808,828,810],{}," (needn't have \u002F didn't need to) cooked, they had already eaten.",[189,831,832,833,835],{},"She ",[808,834,810],{}," (could have \u002F must have) been a doctor, but she became a teacher.",[54,837,838,841,842,844],{},[92,839,840],{},"Answers:"," 1. must have (the cold ground is the evidence) 2. should have\n(criticism, you did not tell me) 3. can't have (never ",[58,843,415],{}," for a\ndeduction) 4. needn't have (you cooked, and it was wasted) 5. could have (the\noption she did not take).",{"title":846,"searchDepth":847,"depth":847,"links":848},"",2,[849,850,851,852,853,854,855,856],{"id":87,"depth":847,"text":88},{"id":253,"depth":847,"text":254},{"id":323,"depth":847,"text":324},{"id":442,"depth":847,"text":443},{"id":518,"depth":847,"text":519},{"id":582,"depth":847,"text":583},{"id":699,"depth":847,"text":700},{"id":797,"depth":847,"text":798},"B2","How modal plus have plus past participle works in English: regret and criticism with should have, deduction about the past with must have and can't have, and the difference between needn't have and didn't need to.",[860,881,913],{"type":861,"instructions":862,"options":863,"items":864},"which-one","Choose the past modal that fits the meaning.",[311,354,398,369],[865,867,869,871,873,875,877,879],{"prompt":866,"answer":311},"You ___ told me. I would have helped you.",{"prompt":868,"answer":354},"She is not answering, so she ___ gone to bed.",{"prompt":870,"answer":398},"He ___ seen me, he was looking the other way.",{"prompt":872,"answer":369},"I am not sure why she is late. She ___ missed the bus.",{"prompt":874,"answer":354},"The window is broken, so somebody ___ hit it with a ball.",{"prompt":876,"answer":311},"You ___ said sorry to her. It was your fault.",{"prompt":878,"answer":398},"They ___ walked here in ten minutes, it is much too far.",{"prompt":880,"answer":369},"I cannot find my keys. I ___ left them at work.",{"type":882,"instructions":883,"items":884},"fill-blank","Write the past participle of the verb in the hint.",[885,889,893,897,900,904,907,910],{"prompt":886,"answer":887,"hint":888},"You should have ___ me the truth.","told","tell",{"prompt":890,"answer":891,"hint":892},"She must have ___ the early train.","caught","catch",{"prompt":894,"answer":895,"hint":896},"He can't have ___ the note, it was under the table.","seen","see",{"prompt":898,"answer":131,"hint":899},"They might have ___ home already.","go",{"prompt":901,"answer":902,"hint":903},"I should have ___ you with the boxes.","helped","help",{"prompt":905,"answer":161,"hint":906},"You could have ___ hurt.","be",{"prompt":908,"answer":176,"hint":909},"She must have ___ about the party.","know",{"prompt":911,"answer":146,"hint":912},"We should have ___ an hour earlier.","leave",{"type":861,"instructions":914,"options":915,"items":916},"Choose should have (it was the right thing to do) or shouldn't have (it was the wrong thing to do).",[311,619],[917,919,921,923,925,927,929,931],{"prompt":918,"answer":619},"I ate the whole cake. I ___ eaten so much.",{"prompt":920,"answer":311},"You ___ told her, she was waiting all day.",{"prompt":922,"answer":619},"He ___ shouted at the boy, it was not his fault.",{"prompt":924,"answer":311},"We ___ left earlier, now we are late.",{"prompt":926,"answer":619},"You ___ paid, I said it was my turn.",{"prompt":928,"answer":311},"She ___ asked for help sooner.",{"prompt":930,"answer":619},"They ___ taken that road, it was closed.",{"prompt":932,"answer":311},"I ___ read the letter before I signed it.","md",[935,938,941,944],{"q":936,"a":937},"What is the difference between should have done and could have done?","Should have done says it was the right thing to do and you did not do it, so it carries regret or criticism: you should have told me. Could have done says it was possible and you did not do it, with no judgement attached: you could have taken the train instead. Should have blames; could have simply lists an option that was open at the time.",{"q":939,"a":940},"What does must have done mean?","It is a deduction about the past. You did not see it happen, but the evidence leaves no other answer: the ground is cold, so it must have rained in the night. It is the past version of must be, and like must be its negative is can't have, never mustn't have.",{"q":942,"a":943},"Is it should have or should of?","Always should have. Should of does not exist in written English. It appears because should have is pronounced should've, which sounds identical to should of in speech. The same goes for could of, would of and must of, all of them wrong. If you can write should've, the full form is should have.",{"q":945,"a":946},"What is the difference between needn't have done and didn't need to do?","Needn't have done means you did it and it turned out to be unnecessary: I needn't have cooked, they had already eaten. Didn't need to do means it was unnecessary, and usually you did not do it: I didn't need to cook, so I read a book instead. The first is about a wasted action, the second about an obligation that was never there.","english",{},true,"\u002Fenglish\u002Fgrammar\u002Fpast-modals",{"title":48,"description":858},"english\u002Fgrammar\u002Fpast-modals","8OWH4K1VEgtORyhFnkY-qZZBhM3p5lDTfaHIbFsH0wg",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":5,"height":5,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":955},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M13 21h8M15 5l4 4m2.174-2.188a1 1 0 0 0-3.986-3.987L3.842 16.174a2 2 0 0 0-.5.83l-1.321 4.352a.5.5 0 0 0 .623.622l4.353-1.32a2 2 0 0 0 .83-.497z\"\u002F>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":5,"height":5,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":957},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M11 4.702a.705.705 0 0 0-1.203-.498L6.413 7.587A1.4 1.4 0 0 1 5.416 8H3a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v6a1 1 0 0 0 1 1h2.416a1.4 1.4 0 0 1 .997.413l3.383 3.384A.705.705 0 0 0 11 19.298zM16 9a5 5 0 0 1 0 6m3.364 3.364a9 9 0 0 0 0-12.728\"\u002F>"]