Ch 20 · Lesson 9English · Chapter 20 · Lesson 9 · Grammar primer
Having finished, he left: what the clause means
An -ing clause can mean the same time, just before, or a reason. Having + the third form makes it clear one thing came first.
The short version
Having done: this came first
, .
Why?Hide
An -ing clause does not say how it joins the main clause: same time, just before, or a reason. To make it clear that one action was over before the other, use having + the third form. The not goes first: not knowing, not having.
What an -ing clause means
The clause does not say how it joins the main clause. The reader works it out:
| Meaning | Example | Means |
|---|---|---|
, . | ||
, . | , | |
, . | ||
| () | , bringing . |
To make it clear that one action was before the other, use + :
, ., .
The goes first: ,
. Not knowing not.
Going further: -ing or third form? and the rest of the guide, when you want them. This lesson does not need them.
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