Linking words in English: however, although, despite, whereas and therefore
Most guides to linking words hand you a list of twenty and leave you to it. That is not where learners actually go wrong. The errors cluster on one point, and it is not about meaning at all: it is about what grammar the word takes after it.Although and despite mean the same thing. One takes a clause and one takes a noun, and mixing them up is easily the most common mistake in written English at this level.
So start there, and treat the rest of the list as detail.
The rule that fixes half the errors
Line the two up.
| Word | What follows it | Example |
|---|---|---|
| although | a clause (subject + verb) | Although it was cold, we walked. |
| though | a clause | Though it was cold, we walked. |
| even though | a clause | Even though it was cold, we walked. |
| despite | a noun or an -ing form | Despite the cold, we walked. |
| in spite of | a noun or an -ing form | In spite of the cold, we walked. |
All five sentences say the same thing. The difference is entirely mechanical:
- Although the cold, we walked. Wrong. Although needs a verb after it.
- Despite it was cold, we walked. Wrong. Despite cannot take a clause.
There is a bridge if you need a clause after despite. Add the fact that:
Despite the fact that it was cold, we walked.
It is heavy, and in most sentences you should simply use although instead, but it is correct and it is the only way to get a clause after despite.
One more thing about despite and in spite of: because they behave like prepositions, the verb form after them is the -ing form, exactly as it is after at, in and before. See gerund and infinitive for the wider rule.
- Despite being ill, he came to work. (not despite to be ill)
- In spite of losing, they were happy.
Finally, note the spelling. It is in spite of, three words, and despite with no of at all. Despite of the rain is a blend of the two and is wrong.
however
However is an adverb, not a conjunction, and that distinction has one practical consequence: it cannot glue two clauses together on its own. It belongs at the start of a new sentence, followed by a comma.
- It was late. However, we kept going.
- The food was cheap. However, it was very good.
You may also drop it inside the sentence, between commas, which slows the sentence down and adds weight to the contrast:
- We kept going, however, until it was dark.
What you cannot write is it was late, however we kept going. That is a comma joining two full clauses, which English does not allow. Fix it with a full stop, a semicolon, or but.
but, however, although: the same idea, three grammars
These three carry roughly the same meaning and are not interchangeable in form.
| Word | Joins | Example |
|---|---|---|
| but | two clauses, in one sentence | It was late, but we kept going. |
| although | two clauses, one of them subordinate | Although it was late, we kept going. |
| however | two sentences | It was late. However, we kept going. |
The classic learner error is to use two of them at once: Although it was late, but we kept going. English allows one linking word per join. Pick although or pick but, never both. If your first language does allow the pair (many do), this will feel wrong for a while, and it is still the rule.
Though has a use the others do not: at the end of a sentence, informally, meaning however.
It was late. We kept going, though.
whereas and while
Although says the second fact is a surprise after the first. Whereas says no such thing. It simply sets two facts side by side and points at the difference.
- My sister likes the sea, whereas I prefer the hills.
- The first film was long, whereas the second was over in an hour.
Nothing is unexpected there; the two halves are just different. That is why whereas is common in writing that compares things and rare in speech.
While can do the same job, at the cost of a small ambiguity, since while also means "at the same time as".
- While the first team trained hard, the second did nothing. (contrast)
- While I was cooking, the phone rang. (time)
Context nearly always makes it clear, but if the sentence could be read either way, use whereas for the contrast and keep while for the time.
therefore, so and as a result
These give the result rather than the contrast. Again the split is grammatical.
| Word | Joins | Example |
|---|---|---|
| so | two clauses, in one sentence | It was closed, so we went home. |
| therefore | two sentences | It was closed. Therefore, we went home. |
| as a result | two sentences | It was closed. As a result, we went home. |
| because | attaches the cause | We went home because it was closed. |
Therefore behaves exactly like however: it is an adverb, so it takes a full stop or a semicolon before it, not a comma. It was closed, therefore we went home has the same fault as the however example above. In everyday writing, so is almost always the better word; therefore carries a formal, slightly legal weight that most sentences do not want.
Keep this so apart from the so that goes in front of an adjective (it was so cold that we went home), which is a different structure with its own rules; see so, such, too and enough.
Position and punctuation
Three patterns cover nearly everything.
- Linking word first, comma in the middle. Although it was cold, we walked. Despite the cold, we walked. The comma marks the end of the first part.
- Linking word in the middle, no comma. We walked although it was cold. Both orders are correct; the first puts weight on the contrast, the second on the main fact.
- Full stop, then the adverb and a comma. It was cold. However, we walked. Same for therefore, as a result, in addition.
Summary table
| Linking word | Meaning | Takes |
|---|---|---|
| although | contrast | a clause |
| though | contrast | a clause (or sits at end) |
| even though | contrast | a clause, stronger |
| despite | contrast | a noun or -ing |
| in spite of | contrast | a noun or -ing |
| however | contrast | a new sentence |
| whereas | contrast | a clause, no surprise |
| while | contrast or time | a clause |
| but | contrast | a second clause |
| so | result | a second clause |
| therefore | result | a new sentence |
Common mistakes
Ranked by how often learners actually make them.
- Despite + clause. Despite it was raining. Use although it was raining, or despite the rain.
- Although + noun. Although the rain, we went out. Use despite the rain, or although it was raining.
- Two linking words on one join. Although it was late, but we went. Drop one of them.
- However with a comma in front. It was late, however we went. Use a full stop or a semicolon: It was late. However, we went.
- Despite of. A blend of despite and in spite of. It is one or the other, never a mix.
- Therefore used as so. The shop was shut, therefore we left. Same comma fault as however: The shop was shut, so we left.
Practice
Complete each sentence. Answers are below.
___the noise, the baby slept well.___the noise was terrible, the baby slept well.- It rained all day.
___, we still went out. - He likes the city,
___his wife prefers the country. - What is wrong with: Although he was ill, but he came to work.
Answers: 1. Despite / In spite of (a noun follows) 2. Although / Though / Even though (a clause follows) 3. However (a new sentence, with a comma after it) 4. whereas (a plain contrast, no surprise) 5. Two linking words on one join. Keep although and drop but: Although he was ill, he came to work.